Which Came First??

The Council of Trent may have been in part brought about in response to Martin Luther. Yet actions of the Catholic Reformation were in progress before Luther was even conceived as a threat to the Catholic Church. This can be seen as starting under Pope Alexander. Though under pope Alexander during the renaissance a reform group was conceived it had little to no observable effect on any of the issues plaguing the church at the time. Yet the reform process was expedited by Luther’s criticism of the Catholic church although many loyal Catholics did agree with Martin Luther that there were issues that needed to be fixed within the church. These loyal followers instead brought about the Council of Trent to solve the issues that they saw needed clarification. Also the Council of Trent condemned the protestant movement.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Trent#List_of_decrees

Happy Massacre Day!

St.Bartholomew's day massacre was killing spree in Paris, France after King Charles IX of France ordered an assassination on the Huguenot Protestant leader the Duke of Guise in Paris. King Charles was very influenced by his mother Catherine de Medici who just so happened to have ordered the assassination of a huguenot leader just two days before King Charles ordered an assassination. This mommas boy listens to everything she says. She told Charles that the Huguenots were planning a rebellion against him and obviously he doesn't want that to happen so he ordered the assassination of their leaders. This obviously did not sit well with the Huguenots. Soon after the massacre began.

The following piece by François Dubois depicts a proclaimed eye witness experience of this massacre. As shown in the painting, there is utter chaos through the streets of Paris as thousands are being killed. According to different factions during the time period anywhere from 3,000-70,000 people were killed during the St.Bartholomew's Day Massacre. This massacre ended about 10 years after the Duke was assassinated.
http://www.britannica.com/event/Massacre-of-Saint-Bartholomews-Day
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/saint-bartholomews-day-massacre

The Spanish Armada

The year was 1588 and the war was over England. The Spanish Armada was a Spanish fleet of 130 ships with a strategic aim to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I of England and the establishment of Protestantism in England. The fleet was tasked with the purpose of escorting an army to invade the English mainland. If they succeeded the course of English history would have taken a drastically different path.

The descent of the Armada came at a pivotal time of change in sea warfare. The Spanish represented the old tradition while the English fought with new design and tactics. In the old model, war was fought on sea as if on land, with soldiers discharging arrows and handguns, boarding the enemy ships and engaging in hand fighting for battle wins. The Spanish ships, or galleons, were made for this type of fighting. They were impressive in size and rode high out of the water with towering masts, but their height and broad nature made them awkward to sail and maneuver.

English captains inspired a new form of ship which was made to be lower in the water, with a long prow and much reduced masts. These sleek ships carried more sophisticated forms of rigging, enabling them to sail closer to the wind, thus making them more maneuverable and faster than the Spanish galleons. The English navy relied on gunnery, rather than boarding, to defeat an enemy. The design of the ships allowed the English to close in and fire repeatedly on the sides of the Spanish ships at short range, inflicting considerable damage and sinking ships. The Armada did not have a way to counter with gunfire-centered attack as Spanish crews were not trained to load and fire repeatedly during a battle and their guns were not designed for rapid fire.

Credits:
http://www.britishbattles.com/spanish-war/spanish-armada.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Armada

Images:
http://www.britishbattles.com/spanish-war/spanish-armada.htm

The Four Witches or the Three Graces plus a Fourth

The Four Witches is an engraving by Albrecht Durer, dating to 1497. The work shows four sensual, nude women gathered in a circle. The women almost look like they are conspiring to do evil deeds together as seen by their expressions and indicated by the bones scattered. The doorway, to the right, is likely a gateway to death as seen by the bones lying across it. The doorway to the left seems to show the Devil, or a monster, engulfed in flames and might be intended as a gateway to hell. The intended meaning of the woodcut is unclear; possible interpretations range from the Three Fates with Discord, to Aphrodite and the Three Graces, or four witches, or four girls in a bath house. The engraving could also depict the Greek goddess Hecate, goddess of the crossroads and patroness of magic, witchcraft, necromancy, and sorcery and her counterpart, Diana. The goddess was often depicted with three faces, suggesting that she could look in all directions. Whatever the subject, the woodcut showcases the fears of witchcraft and paganism in the newly formed Protestant world. 

Credits:

http://risdmuseum.org/art_design/objects/342_the_four_witches
http://www.wga.hu/html_m/d/durer/2/13/1/019.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Witches

Images:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Witches

Judensau: Anti-semitism in the Reformation

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Judensau is a folk art image of Jews in obscene contact with a large sow, which is seen as an unclean animal in the Jewish religion, that appeared during the 13th century, mainly in Germany. The arrangement of Jews surrounding, suckling, and having intercourse with the animal is a blatant example of antisemitic propaganda during the Reformation. The earliest appearance of the Judensau dates to about 1210 on the underside of a choir-stall seat in 1210. Images appear mostly in carvings and sculptures on church walls where they were likely to be seen by many. With the advent of the printing press, the image started to appear more frequently in woodcut form, accompanying many antisemitic commentary in pamphlets. The facade of the Stadtkirche, in Wittenberg, contains a Judensau, from 1305. The sculpture portrays  Jews drinking from a sow's teats, as the rabbi looks under its tail and remains one of the last remaining examples of "medieval Jew baiting" in Germany. 

Credits:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judensau

http://www.zionism-israel.com/dic/Judensau.htm

Images:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Judensau-Wittenberg.jpg

Malleus Maleficarum

The Malleus Maleficarum, or Hammer of the Witches, is a pamphlet on the prosecution of witches, written by a German Catholic clergyman, Heinrich Kramer, in 1487. A short three years after its publication, the Catholic Church condemned the treatise in 1490; although, it was still used by royal courts and contributed to the increasingly brutal prosecution of witchcraft in the 16th century, coming at the end of the Reformation. According to the Malleus Maleficarum, there are three elements to witchcraft: the evil intentions of the witch, help from the Devil, and the permission of God.

The treatise is divided into three sections. The first aimed at clergy and refutes critics who deny the existence of witchcraft. The section examines the concept of witchcraft theoretically by addressing the question of whether witchcraft is real or imaginary. The second lays the foundation by describing forms of witchcraft and remedies for it. Matters of practice, the powers of witches, and their recruitment strategies were discussed. It details how witches cast spells and tells how to help those affected by witchcraft. The third section is the legal part of the pamphlet. It offers a step-by-step guide to the conduct of a trail and the formal charging.

Credits:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum
http://www.malleusmaleficarum.org

Images:
http://www.malleusmaleficarum.org/WordPress/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/MalleusLatin2.jpg

The Three Graces

This painting, called the The Three Graces,was made by Raphael in 1506, and was a probably a panel in diptych given to Scipione di Tommaso Borghese.  The first panel has Scipio, the sleeping knight, choose between Venus, who represents pleasure, and Minerva, who represents Virtue; this panel has three graces rewarding his choice, virtue, with the Golden Apples of the Hesperides.  The painting is composed with a sense of harmony and balance.  The three graces personify grace and beauty, and are the handmaidens of goddesses, usually Venus.  What each of the three graces represent has been disputed; some say its the giving, receiving, and returning of gifts, while others saw them as three phases of love: beauty, arousing desire, leading to fulfillment, and others say they symbolize Chastity, Beauty, and Love.  The Three Graces are in their classical pose, seen throughout centuries of painting, with two facing the audience while one is turned away.  This painting was the first to display the a female's nude front and back.  It was based on a classical sculpture of the Three Graces found in Siena.

Sources:

http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/r/raphael/2firenze/1/21graces.html 

Codpiece: Does Size Matter?

When someone thinks of King Henry the VIII of England, typically the initial thought is about his six wives and the split with the Catholic Church. Yet this one of kind king also had a one of kind codpiece. This interesting piece of fashion was initially designed for modesty to ensure that the male genitals would remain covered no matter what the man was wearing or doing. Eventually this innocent and modest piece of garment quickly became a fashion statement that quickly became essential for everybody who wanted to be somebody. Yet King Henry VII took this to a whole new level as his codpiece grew in size over his lifetime to prove its that this piece of garment met a kingly level. Eventually Henry VII had padded his codpiece so much that it was an unbelievable size; even for a king. Also due to the large size of some codpieces that people would hide valuables and even possibly weapons in them. So in-essence this became a multi-purpose piece of fashion, that also offered battlefield protection to ensure the Henry VII could have his baby boy. Unfortunately, though this fashion died out in England after Queen Elizabeth I came to power as she has no need for such gaudy fashion.
http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/ampp3d/henry-viiis-codpiece-big-america-4797298
http://www.fashionencyclopedia.com/fashion_costume_culture/European-Culture-16th-Century/Codpiece.html

A Witch's Burning Secret

During the reformation and post reformation, claims of witches living amongst the people of Europe became very frequent. Accusations that certain people, mostly women, were witches and housed the devil himself within them. In 1515 outbreaks of witch hysteria rained over Geneva, Switzerland as they accused and burned over 500 people at the stake. Just nine years later in Como, Italy, another 1000 people were executed under accusations of witchcraft. The only thing necessary for an execution of a "witch" was someone simply saying "He/She is a witch!" and they were then taken to trial. During these "trials" a witch would be found guilty of witchcraft with practically no way of escaping the accusation. Since witches house the devil they are known to lie. In this case anything they say is a lie unless they admit to being a witch of course. Even in this scenario they will be found guilty and executed. All of this chaos stems off of paranoia of the catholic church and the protestants.

The following piece is called 'The Examination of a Witch' by Matteson. Although this painting is from 1853 it holds the same value of those during the European witch trials. In the painting, the woman is being deemed a witch due to body markings that the town has seen. In this the presumed judge is examining these markings as others in the scene are fainting because of the disbelief that they are in the presence of a "witch". The woman's expression is that of a person who knows their fate. Being executed in a way only fit for a witch.

http://www.wsc.mass.edu/mhj/pdfs/TEACHING%20RESOURCES%20Teaching%20the%20Salem%20Witch%20Trials.pdf
http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/witchhistory.html

Three Decades of Divinity

The thirty years war began in 1618 and lasted until 1648. This war began with the holy Roman Empire attempting to "curtail certain religious privileges enjoyed by his subjects".. This sparked an uprising among the protestantsThe protestants then turned to some of the most powerful and well known protestant states in Great Britain, Denmark, and the Dutch Republic. In order to counter them other forces were brought into the picture such as the German catholics, Spain, and the papacy by the Roman Empire. After thirty years of fighting and many lives lost, the war ended at the Battle of Prague in 1648.

Through this long time span, life did not seize, and since life did not seize, art continued to be made. There were many pieces created regarding the war as it was a very volatile time period. A piece  called 'Rocroi, the last tercio' by Augusto Ferrer Dalmau depicted as seen by many as the turning point of this war as it showed that the perceived invincibility of the Spanish was false. The Spanish army was slaughtered by the French. In this piece, it is shown that many of the Spanish lay dead in front of a large amount of French soldiers realigning. Dalmau does not leave any room for imagination as he made this piece very graphic in many manors from dead horses, dead men, and how could one leave pools of blood from the image. A statement is made from this piece giving the viewer no choice but to know who won this battle.
http://www.history.com/topics/thirty-years-war

The Lion of the North

King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden was one of the most power people in Europe at the time of the Thirty Years War. He led Sweden which up until this time had been seen as a lesser power. Under his leadership Sweden became the most powerful protestant state and would prevent the destruction of the Protestant League during the 30 Years War. Swedish involvement in this critical religious war that also led to dissolution what was left the Holy Roman Empire was a pivotal moment that completely changed the momentum of the war. Yet Gustav’s impact and progress, as a commander on the battlefield with no equals, during the war would find itself-undone when the King of Sweden was slain on the field of battle in Leipzig. The protestants would hold on and survive the war to negotiate the peace of Westphalia in 1648. Peace between the different denominations of Christianity would largely remain as both sides no turned to witch hunts to satisfy their taste for blood.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus_of_Sweden#Life

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War#Political_consequences

Reformation & Religious Tolerance?

Upon reading the New York Times review of Benjamin Kaplan’s book, Divided by Faith, I gravitate towards the description that “Kaplan maintains that religious toleration declined from around 1550 to 1750.” (Steinfels). This argument for the decrease in religious tolerance during the period appears supported by events of the period, like, for example, the pockets of witch-hunting. Clearly, the Reformation did not necessarily promote open acceptance of all different reform movements that sprung from the period, if it did offer a Protestant alternative to the Catholic Church. One example of decreased religious toleration manifests in the experiences of the Anabaptists of the period, who were “arrested, burned at the stake, and sometimes symbolically punished by drowning” (Zophy 207).

Here, I utilize a woodcut to illustrate the persecution of the Anabaptists. Granted, this particular woodcut comes from “Martyrs Mirror,” a seventeenth-century collection of illustrations by Jan Luyken. Therefore, the art piece is subject to the influence of historical hindsight/revision itself. The specific engraving I chose depicts the drowning of Heinrich Summer and Jakob Mandel in 1582, both of whom were Anabaptists. The illustration naturally draws focus to the anguish of the man who has been subjected to the drowning. The figure above him actually seems to be questioning/displaying anger over the death, hands spread out in a gesture motioning to the plight of the man (Summer or Mandel presumably). Accurately, there are many onlookers- persecution during the Reformation period was intended to be public. The castle in the background and a sort of antiquated feel to the portrait (even for the 1500s) may hint at the feudal system that organized society primarily in the medieval period. In this way, the artist seems to separate his time period from even that of just a century previous. In general, the woodcut demonstrates the ways in which the Reformation was as much a challenge of older structures of religion/society as it was a reinforcement of order/religion/power structures in an intense or instigative manner.

Sources:

Steinfels, Peter. "A Revisionist Historian Looks at Religious Toleration." New York Times, Nov. 24, 2007. Print.

On the artist- http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?/en/collecties/jan_en_casper_luyken/jan_luyken

On the Martyrs Mirror- https://kauffman.bethelks.edu/martyrs/creation.html

Image- https://mla.bethelks.edu/holdings/scans/martyrsmirror/

He's Out for the Count- "The Bewitched Groom"

As we have studied, the Reformation occurred contemporaneously with some major pockets of witch-hunting in German regions and elsewhere. The atmosphere of religious fervor, growing bureaucracy, and the religious upheavals/resulting societal expectations contributed to the appearance of witch-hunts. However, there were many factors involved and I chose this particular woodcut to examine the witch-hunts in relation to the influence of the Reformation. Entitled “The Bewitched Groom,” this woodcut was produced by Hans Baldung Grien in 1544.

Although not necessarily focused on witches, the woodcut is telling in a number of ways. For one, the witch-like figure leaning in by the windowsill appears old and is waving a sort of broom or possibly plant stalk in a violent manner. Secondly, the male figure is drawn at such an angle as to emphasize male sexuality, even as he has been rendered unconscious or at the least, knocked down. Importantly, his tools lay loosely by him, un-useful in his bewitched state. Moreover, the horse stands with his rear towards the main figure, which suggests the inverted or unnaturalness of the scene overall. Reformation ideals called for the man to be the powerful and moral leader of the house, while women were expected to be obedient wives and mothers. This woodcut displays the fear of non-conformity to such order. As described, the woman’s age, appearance, and action make her unsuitable for female domesticity. The male is bewitched and again, not able to carry out his duties. Overall, this demonstrates how the Reformation, rather than a free flow of religious debate, became a rigid sort of structuring mechanism for society, in which notions of gender influenced the occurrence of witch-hunts.  

For a clearer image/info- http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/336238

The Power of a Portrait

Queen Elizabeth I is widely regarded as one of England's greatest monarchs.  One of her many strengths was an understanding of the importance of public image.  Her portraits were carefully crafted and included symbols to convey power and majesty.  The Rainbow Portrait, painted in 1600 by Isaac Oliver, exemplifies the use of images to illustrate the Queen's good qualities.  The cloak that Elizabeth is wearing in the portrait is embroidered with eyes and ears, signifying that she can hear and see everything.  Her intricate headdress is decorated with pearls and rubies, and holds up her royal crown.  The pearls are meant to represent her virginity, while the crown illustrates her royal status.  On her left sleeve is a jeweled serpent with heart-shaped ruby in its mouth; the snake symbolizes wisdom and the ruby represents the Queen's heart.  The snake has caught the heart, meaning that the Queen's wisdom restrains her emotions.  Above the snake is a celestial sphere, which also signifies wisdom and the Queen's power over nature.  Elizabeth holds a rainbow in her right hand with the latin phrase 'Non sine sole iris' (No rainbow without the sun) inscribed above.  The rainbow represents peace and prosperity, while the inscription tells the audience that the Queen and her wisdom brings the peace and prosperity.  Though Elizabeth was actually in her sixties when this portrait was painted, she is depicted as young and beautiful.  This portrait was carefully thought out to present a wise and powerful monarch.

Sources:
http://www.marileecody.com/eliz1-images.html

Huguenots: Where are They Now

French Huguenots were a part of the reformed reformation process and mainly located in within France. The Huguenots like the Cathars, who preceded them, had to fight for their beliefs against the French Catholics . Yet unlike the Cathars the French Huguenots successfully defended their faith and were not exterminated. Under the edict of Nantes the Huguenots were protected until it was repealed in 1685. The result would be a massive diaspora of hundreds of thousands French citizens to more accepting protestant nations such as Great Britain and Germanic Countries. Great Britain which allowed much more religious freedom in her colonies is probably why so many Huguenots who retain their denominations traditions are currently residing in Australia. Though their numbers are vastly smaller than at their height which was around 2 million French believers. Though many assimilated to the cultures of the countries they fled to. While not all Huguenots fled France and a couple Huguenot communities remain in southern France. As in 1787 protestants such as the Huguenots finally were accepted and considered equal citizens under law. Also there is a Huguenot society in America that accepts applicants who can prove Huguenot heritage or is sponsored by a current member. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenot#Effects

 http://huguenotsocietyofamerica.org/?page=Membership

It's in the eyes- Artwork of St. Teresa of Avila

In accordance with our study of the Counter Reformation, I will look at another figure of the period – St. Teresa of Avila – through the lens of two different works of art. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) is best known for her mysticism, writings, and leadership in the Carmelite order in Spain.  During her lifetime, she remained persistent in the growth of a reform-minded Carmelite order, as well as wrote works such as Way of Perfection and her Autobiography (Zophy 261-262). I desired to compare two works focused on St. Teresa of Avila in order to demonstrate both her own legacy and that of the Counter Reformation.

The first work is Bernini’s infamous sculpture, The Ecstasy of St. Teresa. Sculpted in the years 1647-1652, the work stands as a testimony to Teresa of Avila’s distinct mysticism, as it depicts her in the midst of a religious vision. As the viewer can see, the sculpture retains all the drama of the Baroque period whilst rendering the saint as overwhelmingly beholden to her spiritual vision. Moreover, the facial expressions of both Teresa and the other figure evoke emotion and vivid experience. The multiple folds of Teresa’s garb add further spectacle to the scene. In comparison, the second work, Baron Francois Gerard’s St. Teresa, is altogether different, but this naturally stems from its later time frame (early 19^th century) and thus, Romantic style. The portrait simply gives a modest Teresa, with eyes that angled upward convey a subtle link to mysticism, but moreover, convey a blend of piety and mystery. Gerard gives an ideal Teresa, quiet but impactful in beauty and mystery, a spiritual figure from a faraway, lost place (hence approximately two centuries in separation between the portrait and her death).  Bernini equally moves away from reality, but in a way that still seems evocative of the mysticism central to St. Teresa’s character and even the criticism she faced. The works are in truth mostly contrasting depictions of St. Teresa, but they both persist in demonstrating the historical impact of reformers from the period, who tend to appear as stabilizers not defectors after their lifetimes.

Sources:

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bern/hd_bern.htm

http://www.wga.hu/html_m/g/gerard/7theresa.html

Images:

http://www.artble.com/imgs/d/a/5/431705/the_ecstasy_of_saint_theresa.jpg

https://fraangelicoinstitute.com/2012/10/15/st-teresa-of-avila-on-love/teresa_avila_gerard/

The Mary Rose: Henry's Baby

 The Mary Rose was a carrack-type warship that came to be known as the best ship of Henry VIII's time. She was known for her grandeur, beauty, and success. Succeeding Henry's coronation, the new young King knew he needed a great navy, as England was threatened by both the Scots and the French. At the time, he only had a handful of warships and merchant vessels at his disposal. Therefore, in 1510, construction of the Mary Rose started in Portsmouth, where 600 oak trees were used to build it. The earliest reference of the Mary Rose by name appears in a payment record made by Henri VIII for bringing the ship from Portsmouth to the River Thames.
   The ship's first battle was in 1512 against the French fleet. The ship's captain deemed it "the noblest ship of sail". The Mary Rose fought three battles against the French, before sinking on July 19, 1545 at the Battle of Solent. Many attempts were made between 1545 and 1549 to raise to wreck, all unsuccessful.
    After lying dormant for 300 years, divers John and Charles Deane discovered the wreck and were able to raise guns. However, they eventually lost the site of the wreck. In 1982, the wreck of the hull was raised, and event that was viewed on television by 60 million people worldwide.

    It is believed that the Mary Rose was named after Henry's sister. However, it was most likely named after the Virgin Mary.

Visitors can now visit the ship in Portsmouth- (The Mary Rose Museum, Portsmouth Historic Courtyard)

Sources:

"The Mary Rose", The Mary Rose, 2016, http://www.maryrose.org/discover-our-collhttp://www.maryrose.org/discover-our-collection/ection/ 

"The Mary Rose: A Tudor ship's secrets revealed". BBC, 2013. http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-hampshire-22639505

A Century Gone- St. Ignatius Lives on in the Baroque

Ignatius of Loyola or St. Ignatius (1491-1556) founded the Society of Jesus in 1534 or commonly known now as the Jesuits. This religious organization admitted men, stressed obedience, and centralized education in preparing their members to serve those who needed help in the world. St. Ignatius represents one major success of the Catholic Reformation, as missionary work, education, and theology flourished within the society’s growth during the period (Zophy 257-260) To demonstrate the lasting legacy of Ignatius, I looked at a fresco painted a century after the death of the Saint himself. The Apotheosis of St. Ignatius was painted in the late 17^th century by Andrea Pozzo, a Jesuit baroque painter (Vanderbilt Digital Library). Overall, this work designates the impact of the Roman Catholic Reformation, a contemporaneous influence alongside the Protestant movement at the time. Moreover, this signals the transition in artwork towards the Baroque period, a style of excess that perhaps reflects some of the religious upheavals still affecting society even a century later.

The painting resides in the Church of Saint Ignatius in Rome. As you can see, there’s vivid color and a large array of figures, with Ignatius ascending to heaven in the center of the fresco. The fresco itself creates a sense of daunting height and slightly of chaos. There’s also a distinct portrayal of light and altogether, the ornamentation of the Baroque period comes through. This cultural remnant of a later period imparts the very real notion that reform was active and influential within the Catholic Church during the Reformation period, not just outside of it.

Image & Info- 

http://diglib.library.vanderbilt.edu/diglib-fulldisplay.pl

Extra link- This video is about a different altarpiece by Pozzo of St. Ignatius in a nearby chapel. Has some general information about the style and the significance of a similar work by the same artist. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A3vkqYgJ93c

Why don't the contemporary Anabaptists (usually) use contemporary technology?

Recently, in his show Family Guy, philosopher and funnyman Seth Macfarlane mocked the traditions of Amish people. He had an Amish character saying, "We know that God wanted us to have just the right amount of technology they had in the 1800s, not too much not too little." While I'm sure the joke was intended to mock the religious and illicit laughter from the audience, it does raise an interesting question:

 Why don't the Amish use contemporary technology? At one point in time they were using contemporary technology. They must have used the same buggies, the same horse-drawn plows, etc., that other groups of people were using in the 1800s. Its not like the 1800s anabaptists were using medieval farming technology while 1800s Catholics were using 1800s technology.

One explanation I found sheds a lot of light on this question, and totally debunks the assertion of the great thinker Seth Macfarlane.

According to the Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies at Elizabethtown College, the Amish are not anti-technology. Rather, the Amish use technology more selectively. The Amish see contemporary technology, specifically mass media technology, as a means to undermine local traditions which they wish to preserve. Moreover, the Amish fear that mass media technology as well as dependency on things from outside the community will increase rates of assimilation and eventually lead to the extinguishing of their way of life. 

For example, the Amish do use electricity. However, they do not get their electricity from city utilities or power lines. Many Amish purchase batteries and use solar power to charge them. This way they can power lights, use power tools, use typewriters, and many other things without relying on the outside world. However, most communities outright ban the use of things like computers, televisions, radios, and other things which may take outside values and inject them into the community.

Battery powered electric lamp in an Amish home

Buggy with battery powered lights

Therefore, the Amish to not reject technology because "God wanted us to have just the amount of technology they had in the 1800s", but they reject some forms and closely regulate others for purely secular and cultural reasons. 


Sources of information and photos:

https://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/cultural-practices/technology/
http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2013/09/02/217287028/amish-community-not-anti-technology-just-more-thoughful

By Faith Alone

This painting, called the Crucifixion with the Converted Centurion, was painted by Lucas Cranach the Elder in 1536.  Lucas Cranach was a painter and engraver who worked for Frederick the Wise of Saxony in Wittenberg.  He painted with bold compositions and intense colors.  Cranach was friends with Martin Luther and worked on many Protestant pieces; he looked after the printing of Luther’s pamphlets, created altarpieces for Protestant Churches, painted portraits of reformers, and made woodcuts for Luther’s Bible.  The influence Protestantism had on Cranach can be seen in his paintings, such as the Crucifixion and the Converted Centurion.  This painting depicts the religious redemption of the centurion.  Jesus is dying on the cross, his body contrasting with the dark and stormy sky.  Inscribed in German are Jesus’s last words, “Father, into thy hand I commend my spirit,” and the the Centurion exclaiming, “Truly, this man was the Son of God.”  This scene displays the Luther’s concept of salvation by faith alone; the centurion, dressed in 1500s armor, represents the “Knight of Christ,” who defends his beliefs against anything.Though he participated in Jesus's crucifixion, the centurion is redeemed through his newfound faith in God.



Sources:
https://www.artsy.net/artwork/lucas-cranach-the-elder-the-crucifixion-with-the-converted-centurion
http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/Collection/art-object-page.46168.html

Dante's Vision

     Purgatory is a place that the roman catholics described as a place "of temporal punishment for those who, departing this life in , are, not entirely free from venial faults, or have not fully paid the satisfaction due to their transgressions." This is a place of temporary punishment and purification. Those in purgatory are destined for heaven and will not be sent to hell. Purgatory played a huge role just before the reformation as the church would take indulgences from family members hoping to help their loved ones move on into heaven. 

      In Bronzino's "Dante gazing at purgatory" he showcases purgatory in a soft way a opposed to other pieces which depict the separation of heaven, purgatory, and hell in a very graphic and violent way. In this piece, Dante is staring at the seven layer mountain of purgatory and just above the mountain is a beam of light depicting heaven.  Just beneath him is a small glimpse of the flames of hell. The reason for having dante in this painting is because he wrote the divine comedy. '“Inferno” (hell) and “Purgatory” are two of the canticles, or major sections of Dante’s famous poem, which he simply titled Comedy"(The Divine Comedy) "but what began to be called “Divine” around the time this picture was made."'

http://catholicherald.com/stories/Dante-prophet-of-the-Year-of-Mercy,30365
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12575a.htm

If Only Inanimate Objects Could Speak: Martin Luther's Desk

This simple wooden desk took part in an important event in this history of the Protestant Reformation. It is in fact the desk where Martin Luther translated the New Testament from Greek to German during his exile from the Catholic Church.
    In 1521, Martin Luther was invited to stand before the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, at the Diet of Wörms to respond to the charges of heresy following Luther's publication of his 95 Theses. At the meeting, Charles V, backed by Pope Leo X, declared Luther a heretic a banished him from the Holy Roman Empire. Following this, the Elector of Saxony, Friedrich the Wise, invited Luther to take refuge at the Wartburg Castle in Eisenach, Germany where he was confined to the castle walls for ten months. It was during this time that Martin Luther translated the New Testament in the vernacular within eleven weeks, affirming his belief that the bible should be accessible and understandable to everyone.
  The room that is located the desk is called the "Lutherstube", literally "Luther's room" in German.

You can still visit the Castle and the room today.

 Sources:

"Martin Luther and the 95 Theses," History Channel, 2016. http://www.history.com/topics/martin-luther-and-the-95-theses.

"Martin Luther's Life: The Wartburg,"KDG Wittenberg, 1997. http://www.luther.de/en/wartburg.html.

Getting Medieval in NYC: 1850s/2016

When St. Patrick's Cathedral was conceived in New York City in the 1850s,  it was built "for the glory of Almighty God, for the honor of the Blessed and Immaculate Virgin, for the exaltation of the Holy Mother Church, for the dignity of our ancient and glorious Catholic name, to erect a Cathedral in the City of New York that might be worthy of our increasing numbers, intelligence, and wealth as a religious community, and at all events, worthy as a public architectural monument, of the present and perspective crowns of this metropolis of the American continent"(cathedral website).  Fortunate to spend five days there over Spring Break, it was the first thing that I visited upon arriving in the city. I knew that it had been built in little over twenty years, through the Civil War era, and that 103 citizens had grouped together with donations of $1,000 to conceive of a church that would best represent them and their faith. To see the outcome was to see how the past informs the present. 

I arrived at a perfect time. Dusk to late evening. The noise of the city, the yellow taxi cabs, the smells of falafel on the street buzzed around. As a I walked around the corner, the tall spires of the cathedral greeted me. I was thrown by the urban environment of skyscrapers next to what appeared to be a perfectly-shaped Gothic cathedral. While the outside offered rose windows, flying buttresses, and doors that signaled "you are about to enter something really important," the inside offered beauty that was breath-taking, magnified by the free concert inside offering Irish music. The sudden rush of adrenaline that hits me hard made me think of Abbot Suger, a twelfth-century monk and theologian who crafted a treatise on what this kind of architecture means  . . . to soar into the heavens. The long nave, the sacred space of the Baldacchino where the Holy Eucharist is celebrated, the golden cross that appears to stand and stare at the audience, the perpetual prayer candles, and the live music, all served to sharpen the contrast between the worldly city and this sacred center of faith.  

As a scholar of the pre-modern world, I look forward to finding ways that the past has been adapted to the present. With nearly 6 million visitors a year, St. Patrick's cathedral is renowned for its beauty, and the aspect of citizens uniting to build a cathedral (think of all the architectural styles available) in a medieval style (something that Renaissance Italian architects had themselves largely rejected) is appealing.  But I am also teaching a class on the Reformation, so these images are a great reminder of  what a Catholic church represents, then and today. It was no accident that upon entering I saw an image of Pope Francis, who represents the hierarchical framework of the church. Archbishop Timothy Dolan since 2009 has presided over the church and was appointed as cardinal in 2012 (and a St. Louis, Missouri, shout-out to Dolan and midwestern roots). 

Statues, beauty, images: these aspects of religion are central to understanding Faith, Catholics argued, in the midst of some Protestant's attack on the image as false ways to know and experience God. Although some took a very harsh view (termed Iconoclastic, 1520s) and went so far to tear down images, shatter stained glass windows, and smash statues of saints, a large portion of the population found themselves torn between two views. Given some people's propensity to see saints on a daily basis, on street corners, necklaces, and even stories told, it would have been a far tougher break then has been told in some Sunday school classes. That's why myths of St. Luther developed, or even Luther was depicted with a halo, the classic Catholic approbation for a holy person. And that's why some denominations vary considerably in what they consider allowable in religion (dance, song, music, holy mass, stained glass windows, saints, nuns). 

But the other thing that I'm thinking about is how to balance the Protestant critique of money spent on decoration and buildings with this beautiful church. We know that the Reformation began within the context of a major rebuilding of St. Peter's basilica. Just the recent restoration of St. Patrick's cathedral has cost more that $175 million dollars, and the website has a "give now" donation clicker, as well as a gift shop featuring key chains, prayer candles, and bookmarks. Is religion now a commodity, some would argue? Teaching in Rome, I frequently encounter the complaint that the Vatican museum should be free. What is the relationship between money spent and religion revealed in artifacts? That will likely rest in the viewer's belief system. I leave room for multiple opinions. But there are major costs to preserving history and religion that can not be easily calculated. Just sweeping a church with a broom, from all the tourists and pilgrims'  foot traffic is a major endeavor for most churches, for instance, that frequently is assumed stands cost-free. And I was one of these, more tourist for certain, but heading towards pilgrim after getting a few chills from the magnificence of this church.  I was fortunate to feel the decision-making process of the 100 or so citizens that sought to recreate medieval architecture in the modern world. 

The Beliefs of the Protestant Reformation in a Painting

This is The Law and Gospel which was painted by Lucas Cranach the Elder in 1529. A close associate of Martin Luther, Lucas Cranach the Elder is believed to have been born in 1472. Although influenced by Renaissance art Lucas Cranach the Elder is chiefly remembered for his role as a principle artist in the Protestant Reformation and is remembered for his numerous mythological and religious paintings such as Cupid Complaining to Venus and The Law and Gospel and for his work as a portrait artist as he painted numerous members of the royalty of Saxony and even painted a famous portrait of Martin Luther himself. Lucas Cranach the Elder proved to be a highly influential figure in the Protestant Reformation and associated with and influenced many powerful people he met through his art and the various governmental positions he held.     

Lucas Cranach the Elder painted The Law and Gospel in collaboration with Martin Luther and as such there are many religious and spiritual themes and messages that are trying to be conveyed by this image. The primary lesson that is trying to be communicated by this image is that it is only through belief and God's grace and mercy can people ascend to heaven. This is a refutation of the prevailing Catholic belief that people can improve their chances of going to heaven by performing "good works" like donating money to the Church, commissioning art or any other action that the Catholic Church deems worthy. There is a fundamental difference in belief between the relationship of belief itself and actions that is being illustrated by the man going to heaven on the right with Jesus on the cross beside him and the man on the left who is shown next to the law alone. This shows Martin Luther's belief that only through faith coupled with law is heaven accessible and not just adherence to law even if it is divinely inspired. The Law and Gospel is significant for all the complex messages that it conveys about faith and religion and it embodies the essential theological differences in belief that Martin Luther's reformation was built on.  

                           

Sources

André Marie, Faith and Good Works, Catholicism.Org. 2009, http://catholicism.org/faith-and-good-works.html 

Cranach, Law and Gospel(Law and Grace), Khan Academy.https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/renaissance-and-reformation/protestant-reformation/a/cranach-law-and-gospel-law-and-grace 

Lucas Cranach the Elder, Cranach Digital Archive. 2016, http://lucascranach.org/lucas-cranach

Lucas Cranach the Elder, The National Gallery. 2016, http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/lucas-cranach-the-elder

The V Shape

Pregnancy during the Renaissance was fascinating to say the least. One specific aspect of giving birth that I found slightly disturbing was the psychical position of the soon-to-be mother. I found myself cringing at the thought. There were actually a few different positions depending on the situation, but most deliveries were commonly preformed on some type of chair.
(I sat in desk chair to try and imagine what this experience would have been like... go ahead. Try it.)
Turns out these were not just everyday chairs. They were specifically designed for giving birth.

 

When the time was right, the midwife would require the woman to sit in a chair with a v-shaped rim. In order for there to be no pressure under the woman, the center of the chair was hallow and the back of the chair was slanted so the woman could lean back for more comfort and support. This also gave the midwife easy access to the baby.

 

Childbirth: Woodcut from Der Swangern Frawen und he bammen roszgarten, by Eucharius Rösslin, 1513. 

(An imagine displaying the use of a birthing chair.)

The V-shaped chair was more commonly used on women who had already experienced giving birth. First-timers relied on more comfortable positions. 

Sources:
http://www.gallowglass.org/jadwiga/herbs/WomenMed.html
http://www.elenagreene.com/childbirth.html

The Miracle of Birth

The Miracle of Birth was painted by Enea Salmeggio of Bergamo in the early 1600's. The painting has many distinguishing features that relate to life during the time period. The mother is show as sitting on the side of her bed with a person behind her who assisted in giving her a sitting position rather than laying down on the bed which would seem unusual for many modern day people but was common at the time. The priest in the painting just behind the woman appears to be giving a figurative  blessing to the newborn child. The painting features a three dimensional look that was common for the time it was painted yet holds a simplicity to in which was a hallmark of its creator Enea Salmeggio.  Enea Salmeggio was greatly influence by the works of Raphael and sought to include these influences within his own work. Its impressive that the color palate of the painting is mostly composed of reds and red tinted colors yet manages to give the impression of a warmth within the room and atmosphere. The painting is also notable for the expression of movement as the child is passed from who could be presumed to be the midwife to another female servant. Overall the image provides a look an perspective in

to the a personal  moment not as commonly seen in Renaissance era art.

Sources

The Miracle of Birth, YooniqImages,https://yooniqimages.com/images/detail/100705861/Creative/the-miracle-of-the-birth-by-enea-salmeggia-known-as-talpino-1580-1620-about-16th-century-17th-century 

Wornum, Ralph A.Bibliographical Catalogue of the Principal Italian Painters, With a Table of the Contemporary Schools of Italy, (London: Woodall and Kinder, 1855) 

https://books.google.com/books?id=XCtkAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Wornum+intitle:principal+intitle:painters&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wcj70KfLAhVKt4MKHfaRDRsQ6AEINTAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

 

Midwives in the Birth of the Virgin Mary?

The Nativity of the Virgin is a painting by the Italian painter, Pietro Lorenzetti. It was done around 1335-1342. The painting had been commissioned as part of a cycle of four altarpieces dedicated to the city's patron saints and originally was a secondary altarpiece in the Cathedral of Siena. The painting utilizes linear perspective as the work is separated by two white piers in the foreground and there is a three-dimensio
nality to the living area depicted. The painting is indicative of the Renaissance as the characters, their clothes and surroundings, all have the realism characteristic of the period.

The work is a triptych with the scenes set in the same location. The left scene depicts Mary's father, Joachim, almost being told the birth of the Virgin Mary has occurred outside of the room where the birth occurred and therefore, somewhat removed from the experience. The most interesting feature of this fresco is the two panels to the right. Birthing in Renaissance Italy was a community affair with many women and a midwife helping the pregnant wife through. In Lorenzetti's painting, the community affair of Renaissance childbirth is evident. A woman in red, maybe a midwife, is seen washing the newly born Virgin Mary; women stand, in the rightmost panel, with cloth, waiting to help the resting mother and baby. In total, there are 5 women in the room with the mother during the birth and this would have been pretty standard for the period. The painting shows a Renaissance touch to the old subject of the nativity of Mary.

The painting is now housed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo of Siena, Italy.

Credits:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/late-gothic-italy/siena-late-gothic/v/pietro-lorenzetti-birth-of-the-virgin-c-1342
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativity_of_the_Virgin_(Pietro_Lorenzetti)

Image:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Pietro_lorenzetti,_natività_della_vergine_del_duomo_di_siena,_1342,_tempera_su_tavola_187x182,_museo_dell'opera_del_duomo_di_siena.jpg

Office of the Night

During the renaissance time period many men were being married around the age of thirty while the women would be married at a much younger age. This distance between ages created a certain type of event to become very popular, especially in cities such as Florence. This event was the act of sodomy. Although not viewed today in the same way as it was back in the renaissance period, back then the idea of sodomy was viewed as a very bad thing. With this event consuming Florence’s bachelors, an organization was formed with the purpose to stop the acts of sodomy. This group was the Office of the Night.  One of the main reasons why the act of sodomy was so common during this time was the fact that men would normally be married around the age of 30; whereas the girls were married around a much younger age. This means that a man in his twenties was likely to be a bachelor until the age of 30. Because a woman’s virginity was a key component for marriage the young unmarried woman of this time were kept under close guard by their fathers, which means that men had to find alternative ways in which to pleasure themselves; thus the act of sodomy. Although the Office of the Night did not have any pictures of their organization (or at least none that I could find) they did keep excellent records of their work. Some of this work can be referred to in the book “Forbidden Friendships”.

https://igfculturewatch.com/1998/05/28/homosexuality-in-renaissance-florence/

Who Doesn't LOVE a good painting?

Titian painted the Venus of Urbino in 1538 for the Duke Urbino Guidobaldo II Della Rovere.  Venus, the Roman goddess of love, is depicted as a nude, sensual woman, which was not how women were normally painted at the time; Titian is only able to paint her this way because she represents a Roman goddess, not an Italian woman.  In her hand are roses, and on the window ledge a myrtle plant; both are symbols associated with Venus, and represent the love Venus is offering her: a kind of passion in marriage.  In the background, maids can be seen gathered around an open cassone, or marriage chest. 

The painting was actually commissioned by the Duke as a gift to his wife and serves as an allegory of marriage.  The eroticism in the painting symbolizes the marital obligations the wife would have to fulfill with her spouse.  The sleeping dog at Venus’s feet is a symbol of marital fidelity.  The older maid looking down at the young girl going through the cassone represents motherhood, another expected duty of a wife.

Sources:

http://www.titian.org/venus-of-urbino.jsp#

http://www.uffizi.org/artworks/venus-of-urbino-by-titian/